(Photo by Scoobay via Flickr/CC BY 2.0)
Like many people seeking to broaden their horizons or perhaps understand songs by artists like C. Tangana and Natalia Lafourcade, I decided to dive into learning Spanish, the vibrant and captivating fourth most spoken language in the world.
In a community language class filled with students of varied ages and backgrounds, a man in his 70s quickly began oversharing. What started as a mention of a “pen pal” escalated into him claiming to have an “18-year-old girlfriend” in Venezuela. While I hoped it was either a catfish or a clever financial scam, his raspy words raised troubling concerns.
These unsolicited disclosures prompted me to reflect on sexual exploitation under Venezuela’s authoritarian regime. Building on another Spheres of Influence article, this piece examines the gendered elements of authoritarianism in Venezuela.
Economic Collapse and Indignity Under Authoritarianism
Nicolás Maduro took control of Venezuela in 2013. His leadership has pummeled the nation into a severe economic crisis, triggering mass migration. Colombia alone hosts nearly 3 million Venezuelans seeking refuge, the highest amount in the region. In the summer of 2024, Maduro manipulated the latest presidential elections and his regime has since continued to violently suppress opposition and protests.
The regime’s authoritarianism pervades all aspects of society, subjecting the most vulnerable to violence. The ongoing crisis has left women and girls in precarious living conditions with limited economic opportunities, exposing them to sexual exploitation and human trafficking. According to the Centre for Justice and Peace, over 70% of Venezuelan women live in poverty. The crisis has intensified traditionally assigned gender roles and compelled women to generate income for their families under increasingly dangerous conditions. The gendered impact of authoritarian rule disproportionately affects women and girls, with sexual exploitation thriving under Venezuela’s economic and social instability.
The Gendered Impact of Venezuela’s Humanitarian Crisis
Venezuela’s international isolation, marked by sanctions, is ultimately a result of Maduro’s political choices. Maduro now heavily relies on criminal networks to keep his regime afloat. He operates under a hybrid criminal governance model, forming alliances with criminal organizations to suppress dissent and ensure loyalty from key political and military figures. Maduro’s manipulation of the political system and use of state-sponsored terrorism fuels human smuggling and trafficking networks, exploiting migrants and refugees to under-reported nightmares.
Amnesty International has raised concerns over disappearances and femicides. Venezuela’s lack of gender-sensitive investigative protocols and official statistics since 2016 continues to undermine efforts to address these crimes. While official data on human trafficking is scarce, Mulier Venezuela reported the rescue of 1,390 Venezuelan women and 294 girls from trafficking in 2022. The figures on saved people do not account for the myriad of Sexual and Gender-Based Violence (SGBV) victims missing and murdered.
A 2024 Human Rights Council report revealed a surge in cases of SGBV following the election, particularly in detention settings. Cases include extortion, denial of reproductive rights, sexual assault, and torture of detainees and visitors. The report exemplifies the regime’s systematic use of SGBV as a tool to control and silence opposition, reinforcing oppressive power structures. Maduro’s leadership has increased women’s vulnerability to economic dependence, abusive relationships, and gender-based violence as forced migration continues.
The forced displacement of Venezuelans severely impacts LGBTQ+ people, women, and girls—especially those who are Indigenous, pregnant, and/or breastfeeding.
Fragile Masculinity and Illegitimacy in Venezuela’s Dictatorship
Men typically hold dominant societal positions, such as in the police and military. Patriarchal societies normalize male dominance and the abuse of power at all levels. In Venezuela, toxic masculinity and authoritarianism shape the political landscape, reinforcing the regime’s power structures, perpetuating oppression, and stifling dissent. When a government resorts to repression and violence to maintain control, how legitimate can it be?
Renowned political philosopher Hannah Arendt argues in On Violence that power is the collective ability of people to act, existing only with their consent. When people withdraw their consent, authoritarian regimes tend to replace power with violence. Sociologist Raewyn Connell echoes in Masculinities that violence is inherent in systems of domination, but its presence signals a lack of legitimacy. Authentic power doesn’t rely on intimidation or coercion. Maduro’s dependence on systematic violence demonstrates his desperate attempt to maintain control amid widespread illegitimacy.
How Maduro Exemplifies Potent Authoritarianism
Maduro’s leadership mirrors typical authoritarian behaviour, relying on violence and coercion to maintain power. He embodies toxic and militarized masculinity, presenting himself as a defender against U.S. imperialism. Instead of taking responsibility for Venezuela’s economic crisis and addressing the root causes, Maduro blames sanctions.
Connell introduced the concept of hegemonic masculinity, which is an idealized form of masculinity that enforces heteronormativity and gendered power structures. In essence, heteronormativity presents heterosexuality as natural and superior, granting privileges to those who conform. It marginalizes other sexualities, such as gay, lesbian, bisexual, asexual, and aromantic identities, labelling them as inferior and a threat to the heteronormative standard. Similarly, those who adhere to patriarchal gender norms enjoy privileges while others are stigmatized.
Maduro’s dependence on the military and colectivos—armed gangs and paramilitary loyal to Maduro—shows his embrace of hegemonic masculinity. His regime uses these groups to suppress opposition through political arrests. Maduro has also launched absurd campaigns like “Operation Knock Knock,” urging citizens to report anyone who questions the election results or protests. These tactics are unlikely to quell public dissatisfaction, further deepening the rift between Maduro and everyday Venezuelans.
In the 2024 presidential elections, there were serious voting irregularities. Sergio, a Venezuelan migrant in the Czech Republic, shared, “The government made up numbers and said we, the people and the opposition, are crazy—insulting us and our intelligence. It looks right out of George Orwell’s novel 1984. People are being criminalized for non-existent crimes with really high penalties.”
In his election campaign, Maduro threatened, “If you don’t want bloodshed, go vote for me.” Many saw this statement as a threat, given Maduro’s patterns of authoritarianism.
Sergio remarked, “If you ask me, that’s basically a declaration of civil war—a threat. There’s nothing to be lost in the translation by openly saying that for all of Venezuela and the world to hear. He is choosing escalation and violence over listening to the people.”
Maduro also stated, “I will win by hook or by crook,” signalling his readiness to use whatever means necessary to secure victory, regardless of ethical or legal boundaries—a hallmark of his regime. His frequent donning of military-style uniforms also bolsters an image that equates strength with a willingness to use force, even at the expense of his people.
Challenging hegemonic masculinity and uplifting other forms of masculinity can help dismantle authoritarian, heteropatriarchal, and militaristic societies. Robert Heasley’s typology of straight queer masculinities broadens our understanding of masculinities, which is important since most men don’t fit the harmful, hegemonic mold. In For the Love of Men, journalist Liz Plank advocates for mindful and intentional masculinities to foster healthier, more sustainable communities. Plank also invites readers to reflect on what it means to be a good man rather than simply defining manhood or being a man.
When I think about what it means to be a good man, I envision someone with integrity, accountability, and consideration—someone who does the right thing, even when it’s uncomfortable. This vision directly conflicts with Maduro’s ideologies.
Uniforms as Tools of Political Signalling
Military uniforms often symbolize power and authority, representing a state’s monopoly on violence. It also plays a role in the performance of hegemonic masculinity. This imagery portrays men as protectors, despite the widespread reality of men’s violence against women, children, gender-diverse people, and other men.
The recent public exchange between Ukrainian President Zelenskyy, United States President Trump and Vice President Vance highlights gender performance and political posturing on the international stage. Critics targeted Zelenskyy for not wearing a suit when meeting Trump. Zelenskyy responded that he would wear a suit when Russia’s war against Ukraine ends. The wardrobe scrutiny underscores the policing of appearance, a phenomenon familiar to women worldwide, particularly those in politics and journalism. Over the past three years, Zelenskyy has worn sweatshirts bearing the Ukrainian trident, cargo pants and boots, symbolizing solidarity with his troops and people amidst Russia’s aggression. Zelenskyy’s attire functions as a strategic communication tool, conveying defiance, determination and collective resistance that many Ukrainians admire. There is no business as usual in times of war.
While Trump wears suits instead of military uniforms, he exhibits authoritarian tendencies. His authoritarian tactics bypass democratic norms, and his actions include narratives about annexing Canada, instigating mass deportations (even against U.S. citizens), and weaponizing state institutions to serve his political interests and personal vendettas. Trump has spread conspiracy theories and disinformation to erode trust in democratic and independent institutions while contributing to political polarization. Suffice to say, wearing a suit doesn’t make a country’s leader more democratic, just, or rational.
Maduro actively projects a military and revolutionary image by wearing military-style clothing, aligning himself with the legacy of Hugo Chávez and the Bolivarian Revolution. This attire reinforces Maduro’s connection to the military, a crucial pillar of his regime, enabling him to bypass democratic processes and consolidate power. His clothing represents the masculinity he promotes, reflecting aggression and dominance. Beyond his attire, Maduro has heavily militarized the country, further integrating military norms into society.
The contrasting uses of military clothing reveal how outfits can signal and shape political narratives.
A Path to Dignity and Security for all Venezuelans
Venezuela’s authoritarian regime has undeniable gendered impacts, with women and girls bearing the brunt of the humanitarian crisis. The regime’s perpetuation of toxic masculinity entrenches violence as a tool for control and silencing dissent. The violence undermines human rights, deepening avoidable social and political fractures.
Effectively addressing these issues requires empowering women to take on decision-making roles and amplifying their perspectives. This involves fostering a culture that values and respects women, proactively seeking their input instead of treating it as an afterthought. Investing in women’s and girls’ education and providing prosperous economic opportunities are essential steps towards systemic change. There’s also a need to shift away from toxic masculinity and embrace more mindful masculinities.
While regime change and restoring democracy is crucial in Venezuela, challenging and dispelling rape culture is equally important. Supporting the leadership and advocacy efforts of Venezuelan women confronts the structures that perpetuate men’s violence at all levels. These actions promote a future where all Venezuelans can live with dignity and security.
Edited by Light Naing
