(Photo by Ninara via Wikimedia Commons/CC BY 2.5)
The 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran fundamentally reshaped the nation’s identity, both within its borders and in the eyes of the world.
For the Western world, it signaled the rise of an anti-Western, theocratic regime, sparking concerns about political repression, regional instability, and the spread of Islamic fundamentalism.
For Iranians, the revolution brought about a deeply transformative and oppressive system, particularly for women and girls. It established gender apartheid, where women became the primary victims of laws and social norms that kept them separated from men and locked in unequal roles. This system continues to shape and limit the lives of Iranian women and girls at every stage of their lives.
Under Iranian law, girls are considered women at the age of nine. From that point forward, girls are required to wear the veil in public. From the age of nine, girls can be arrested by the moral police installed under the legal authority of the regime for wearing clothing deemed inappropriate. For many, this shift begins even earlier. At five, when they start school, they must wear the maghnaeh, a tight-fitting head and neck covering that is part of their uniform.
At thirteen, while visiting Iran, I was nearly arrested by the morality police (Gasht-e-ershad) for wearing a loose, bright, colourful orange veil, a tunic considered too short exposing my arms, and skinny white pants. Many girls and women were not as fortunate as I was. One of them was Mahsa Jina Amini, a 22-year-old Kurdish-Iranian woman whose death in September 2022 sparked nationwide protests in Iran and resonated across the globe as the Woman, Life, Freedom movement.
Contrary to the narrative put forth by the regime after Mahsa Jina Amini’s death and echoed by Western media in 2022, the morality police have not been disbanded since. This was simply a diversionary tactic employed by the Iranian government.
From One Family to All: The Shared Experiences of Women in Iran
At eight, my sister’s passport application was denied because her photo did not meet the regime’s mandatory dress code for girls approaching the legal age of nine. We had to resubmit a photo showing her fully covered. In Iran, the government withholds legal identity documents like passports unless strict and discriminatory dress codes are followed, underscoring systemic gender discrimination.
In her forties, my mother was stopped at Tehran airport’s women’s security for wearing heels and red nail polish, both of which were considered unacceptable by the morality police. With separate lines for men and women, she could not speak to my father for help. As a child, I hurried to find something to cover her feet, my father’s socks. She passed security wearing my father’s socks. We nearly missed our flight. Before boarding, she threw the socks behind her, a small but powerful act of rebellion. This incident left a profound impression on me, revealing how invisible barriers restrict women’s freedom and rights and how acts of resistance are an integral part of everyday life for an Iranian woman.
The Invisible Barriers of Gender Apartheid
These invisible barriers extend beyond a woman’s clothing and are deeply rooted in the country’s legal and political systems. They are not isolated acts of prejudice but are systemic policies enforced by the state. Gender roles have been used as a means of control, marginalizing women and limiting their autonomy.
For generations, women have been defined and confined by these imposed identities and expectations. As highlighted by Nobel laureate Narges Mohammadi, women face numerous state-enforced restrictions that men do not.
Here are some examples among many:
- Husbands can legally restrict their wives’ work and travel, and women still require a male’s permission for passports.
- Women are banned from public singing, dancing, and sports stadiums.
- Married women face death sentences for adultery, divorce is nearly impossible, abortion is heavily restricted, and access to birth control is limited by state laws like the “Youthful Population and Protection of the Family.”
- The legal marriage age is 13 for girls, but exceptions allow girls as young as 10 to be married with a male guardian and court approval, perpetuating child marriage. But within these limits, many continue to resist.
How is this gender apartheid? Gender is a social construct. It is shaped by roles, behaviours, and expectations that vary across cultures and time. It defines how individuals are perceived, how they act, and what they are allowed to access. In many societies, these norms reinforce inequality and limit opportunity, especially for women and girls. Gender apartheid is a system that enforces laws and practices to keep girls and women in a separate and inferior position. It involves economic, social, and sexual discrimination based on gender or sex. This system relies on physical and legal measures to maintain inequality and sustain the marginalization of those affected.
Gender Apartheid and the Limits of International Law
Why have women’s demands not led to change? Inside Iran, anyone opposing the regime faces severe repression, including arrest, physical abuse, sexual violence, and even death for standing up for their rights. In recent years, this repression has reached even school-aged girls, with reports of mass poisonings in schools believed to be an attempt to silence and intimidate the next generation of Iranian women. The government’s extensive surveillance keeps a tight grip on dissent. Meanwhile, on the global stage, the principle of sovereignty often prevents other nations from intervening in the internal affairs of countries like Iran and Afghanistan, even in the face of serious human rights abuses such as gender apartheid.
While the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court recognizes “persecution on the basis of gender” as a crime against humanity, the concept of “gender apartheid” to address the systemic segregation and oppression of women has not yet been formally acknowledged as such under international law.
The official definition of apartheid in South Africa described it as a system of organized racism and oppression. This definition led many countries to boycott, divest from, and isolate the apartheid government. These international actions helped strengthen the fight of non-white South Africans inside the country.
Building Accountability for Gender Apartheid through International Law
A similar approach could be used to recognize gender apartheid as a serious human rights issue under international law. This would officially acknowledge the harsh realities women face and support their ongoing struggle for equality. For many years, women have been ignored or dismissed by their own governments and much of the international community.
Creating a gender apartheid convention would give countries, especially members of the United Nations, a tool to hold oppressors accountable. It could lead to new policies that allow for the arrest of those responsible if they travel abroad. It would also help connect activists inside these countries with supporters living overseas, building stronger networks for change.
Governments need to broaden the legal understanding of apartheid to include discrimination based on gender, not just race. Beyond laws and policies, this change presents an important opportunity to reassess how the world addresses oppressive governments. The focus should be on supporting the people who suffer under these regimes, not the regimes themselves.
The Role of the Iranian Diaspora
The Iranian diaspora is a diverse and multifaceted community that reflects the ethnic, religious, and social diversity of Iran itself. It includes a variety of ethnic groups such as Persians, Kurds, Azeri Turks, Armenians, and Assyrians, with Shia Muslims forming the majority, alongside religious minorities like Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Baha’is. The diaspora also spans a wide range of political affiliations, from supporters of the monarchy to left-wing and conservative groups. The largest migration wave occurred in the years following the 1979 revolution, a time of intense political and social transformation. The rise of the Islamic Republic, along with the outbreak of the Iran-Iraq War (1981-1988), forced many to leave their homeland in search of safety and stability.
The Iranian diaspora occupies a unique space where multiple cultures intersect, with individuals bringing diverse perspectives shaped by their experiences across different societies. A central role of the diaspora is amplifying the voices of those still living in Iran. In doing so, it offers important insights into the lived experiences of women, highlighting the complexities of gender and identity-based discrimination. These issues are further influenced by both domestic and global factors, including ethnic and religious discrimination.
It is crucial to remember that sexism, patriarchy, and racism exist everywhere, and anyone can be at risk. Much like the warnings depicted in The Handmaid’s Tale, drastic changes can also happen in Western countries quickly if we fail to recognize the early signs. On June 24, 2022, the Supreme Court of the United States issued a historic decision in the Dobbs v Jackson Women’s Health Organization case, overturning previous court rulings regarding privacy rights and abortion, including the Roe v Wade decision of 1973. The Dobbs decision reversed a nearly 50‐year precedent of constitutionally protected federal access to abortion nationwide, relegating its legal oversight back to individual states and territories. In the absence of a constitutionally protected right to abortion care, states are now free to set strict legal parameters around access to abortion.
As of June 2025, 20 US states have banned or limited access to the procedure. On November 1, 2021, Iran’s Guardian Council approved the “rejuvenation of the population and support of family” bill, which outlaws sterilization and free distribution of contraceptives in the public health care system unless a pregnancy threatens a woman’s health. The bill, which adds to existing limits on access to contraception and abortion, will remain in effect for seven years. Reproductive restrictions in different countries share more similarities than we often recognize. In both cases, these limitations on women’s reproductive rights reveal the global fragility of women’s rights.
The diaspora plays a crucial role in identifying these warning signs, as its members already possessed diverse identities before immigrating and have since gained unique insights into different societies from an insider’s perspective. Even after several generations abroad, many continue to maintain complex, hybrid identities, allowing them to understand both their homeland and the broader world in a way that is distinct and multifaceted. This is why they are in a unique position to speak.
Final Thoughts
To conclude with the powerful words of Nobel Peace Prize laureate Narges Mohammadi, delivered during a speech at an event at the Nobel Peace Center on May 21: “Isn’t it time we call gender apartheid a crime against humanity? This is systematic oppression. This is gender apartheid, and it must end. The current legal framework fails to name the severity of this crime — leaving women in countries like Iran and Afghanistan with no protection. For generations, women have endured violence, domination, and silence.”
Across generations, Iranian women are inspiring younger women in the diaspora to raise their voices for those who cannot. Yet, for many in the diaspora, navigating how and when to speak presents complex challenges. Widespread misunderstandings and biases about the situation in Iran make it hard to accurately represent the community, particularly for first, second, or third-generation diaspora members who haven’t lived there extensively. Advocacy becomes even more difficult when you are seen as a “westerner” in your country of origin.
I understood how to use my voice after attending Fariba Adelkhah’s post-release talk at Sciences Po Paris in Fall 2024. She discussed the limitations on women’s mobility and academic freedom. While imprisoned in Evin Prison in Iran, she sang Do Panjereh (“Two Windows”) by the famous pop singer Googoosh, who left Iran shortly after the revolution. The song, a symbol of hope, was meant to inspire her fellow prisoners, encouraging them to believe in a better world beyond their walls. During the event, she sang the same song for us. Moved by her words, I asked her a question about the role of the Iranian diaspora, specifically regarding first, second, and third-generation Iranians raised abroad. Fariba emphasized that speaking out and raising awareness are the most powerful contributions we can make. She emphasized that for women, knowledge is power.
Knowledge is not passive; it can be a form of resistance. Understanding Iran’s reality means listening to the voices of Iranian women, amplifying their stories in global media and policymaking circles. It means supporting legal efforts to define and criminalize gender apartheid on the international stage, ensuring that state-sanctioned violence and segregation no longer go unnamed. Advocacy also requires material support, whether it be funding evidence-gathering and safeguarding imprisoned activists, or developing secure technologies that enable resistance and protect those on the frontlines. Just as importantly, it means building coalitions across borders, uniting feminist and human rights movements in solidarity. Because when one woman’s rights are denied, the rights of all women are at risk.
Edited by Atena Abbaspourbenis
